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Proline induces calcium-mediated oxidative burst and salicylic acid signaling

This integrates microbial recognition with redox imbalance, ensuring both antimicrobial defense and collateral oxidative injury

Akkermansia is thought to promote barrier degradation because it utilizes the mucus layer as an energy source ( Akkermansia , Bifidobacterium , and Lactobacillus are often found to be increased in PD and would, in other circumstances, be recognized as beneficial bacteria and are marketed as probiotics (Wang et al., 2025)

53, e8882

Cells were washed twice with PBS and visualised using the Nikon Eclipse Ti-E inverted microscope with Intensilight C-HGFIE Precentered Fiber Illuminator (Nikon Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) at 460 nm