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3.5.1 Mechanism of action In the brush border of enterocytes lining the intestinal villi, -glucoside inhibitors (AGIs) competitively inhibit -glucosidase enzymes, preventing the enzymes from cleaving disaccharides and oligosaccharides into monosaccharides (167170)

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Roles in cancer stem cell control ROS such as superoxide (O2), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl radical (OH.), are highly chemically reactive species derived from molecular oxygen (68,69)

Furthermore, GA inhibited the phosphorylation of PI3K, Akt and ERK, and regulated the expression of inflammatory proteins (reducing the activation of NF-B and Ras, and increasing the expression of iNOS and Kinase Suppressor of Ras 2), and increased the expression of Phosphatase and Tensin Homolog deleted on Chromosome 10 (PTEN), thereby inhibiting TNF--induced cell proliferation (Chung et al., 2020)

Therefore, medium-roasted coffee tends to have the highest oxygen scavenging ability, or the highest concentration of antioxidants (Komes & Busic, 2014)