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An Overview of Oxidative Stress, Neuroinflammation, and Neurodegenerative Diseases

Am J Physiol 1985

Free radicals such as ROS and NO, as well as cytokines in the inflammatory microenvironment, can interfere with the normal function of the ER, promoting abnormal protein folding within the ER and exacerbating ERS (Hasnain et al., 2012)

Meanwhile, TLR2/TLR4 expression levels declined, with improved inflammatory cell infiltration in the airway mucosa, reduced alveolar swelling, and thinner basement membranes

Inhibition of the system xc GSHGPX4 axis can predispose cells to ferroptosis, while the primary initiation of ferroptosis typically occurs through the accumulation of toxic lipids, as discussed later in the section