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10.1038/s41591-021-01321-w 107

It's important to note that while these preclinical findings are compelling, human clinical trials remain limited

However, current evidence is primarily derived from in vitro models or animal studies, and often relies on indirect indicators such as protein expression changes (e.g., LC3-II, Beclin-1)

Besides the UPS, the activation of autophagy, including chaperone-mediated autophagy [71], mediates GPX4 degradation to suppress tumor growth or cause tissue damage by activating ferroptosis [7176] (discussed below, Figure 4C)

As NAD+ levels naturally decline with age, individuals may experience fatigue, brain fog, and decreased cellular efficiency