oral melanotic macule inside cheek Pigmented Lesions of the Cavity Differential Diagnosis of Pigmented Lesions

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Most current OA animal models, such as the DMM model or chemically induced models, can simulate cartilage damage in the short term but struggle to fully replicate the long-term cumulative multifactorial pathological changes of human chronic OA

Of those pathological characteristics, aberrant protein deposition, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation and mitochondrial dysfunction are believed to constitute the main molecular hallmarks (Wilson et al., 2023